The mind is a set of cognitive abilities including awareness, perception, thought, judgment, language and memory. It is usually defined as the faculty of thought and consciousness of the entity. It holds the power of imagination, recognition, and appreciation, and is responsible for processing feelings and emotions, producing attitudes and actions.
There is a long tradition in philosophy, religion, psychology, and cognitive science about what shapes the mind and what sets it apart.
An open question about the nature of mind is the mind-body problem, which investigates the relationship of the mind to the physical brain and the nervous system. An older perspective includes dualism and idealism, which thinks the mind is somehow non-physical. The modern view is often centered around physicalism and functionalism, which assumes that thoughts are roughly synonymous with the brain or can be reduced to physical phenomena such as neural activity, although dualism and idealism continue to have many supporters. Another question concerns what kind of creatures are capable of having thoughts. For example, is the mind exclusive to humans, also owned by some or all animals, by all living things, whether it really is a definable characteristic, or whether the mind can also belong to some kind of man-made machine.
Whatever its nature, it is generally agreed that the mind is what enables a being to have a subjective and deliberate awareness of their environment, to see and respond to stimuli with some kind of agency, and to have awareness, including thoughts and feelings.
The concept of the mind is understood in many ways by many different cultural and religious traditions. Some people view the mind as an exclusive property for human beings while others regard the nature of the mind as a non-living entity (eg panpsychism and animism), to animals and gods. Some speculations recorded at the beginning link the mind (sometimes depicted as identical to the soul or spirit) with theories concerning life after death, and the cosmological and natural order, for example in Zoroastrian, Buddhist, Plato, Aristotelian, and other ancient doctrines Greek, Indian and, later, Islamic and medieval European philosophers.
The important philosophers of mind include Plato, Descartes, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Searle, Dennett, Fodor, Nagel, and Chalmers. Psychologists such as Freud and James, and computer scientists such as Turing and Putnam developed influential theories about the nature of the mind. The possibility of non-human thought is explored in the field of artificial intelligence, which works closely in relation to cybernetics and information theory to understand the ways in which information processing by nonbiological machines is comparable or different to mental phenomena in the human mind.
The mind is also described as a stream of consciousness in which the impression of reason and mental phenomena is constantly changing
Video Mind
Etymology
The original meaning of Old English is a gem of memory, not a general thought. Therefore remember , come to mind , remember , have thoughts , etc. The word retains this flavor in Scotland. Old English has another word for expressing "mind", like hyge "mind, spirit".
The meaning of "memory" is shared with Old Norse, which has munr . The original word is derived from the PIE root * men - , meaning "think, remember", from where Latin mens "mind", Sanskrit manas "mind" and language Greece ????? "mind, courage, anger".
The generalization of mind to include all mental faculties, thoughts, wills, feelings and memories gradually evolved during the 14th and 15th centuries.
Maps Mind
Definition
Attributes that make up the mind are moot. Some psychologists argue that only the "higher" intellectual function that shapes the mind, especially the mind and memory. In this view the emotions - love, hatred, fear, and joy - are more primitive or subjective in nature and should be seen as different from such thoughts. Others argue that rational and emotional circumstances can not be so separated, that they have the same nature and origin, and therefore should be regarded as part of the mind.
In popular use, the mind is often identical to the mind: the private conversation with ourselves we do in our heads. Thus we "make our minds," "change our minds" or "two minds" about something. One of the key attributes of the mind in this sense is that it is a private space that is not accessible to anyone but its owner. No one else can "know our thoughts." They can only interpret what consciously or unconsciously communicates.
Mental ability
Broadly speaking, mental ability is a variety of functions of the mind, or things that can be "done" by the mind.
Thoughts are mental actions that enable humans to understand things in the world, and to represent and interpret them in significant ways, or to suit their needs, attachments, goals, commitments, plans, goals, desires, etc. Thinking involves symbolic or semiotic mediation of ideas or data, such as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reasoning, and decision making. Words referring to similar concepts and processes include deliberation, cognition, ideation, discourse and imagination.
Thinking is sometimes described as a "higher" cognitive function and thinking process analysis is part of cognitive psychology. It is also strongly related to our capacity to create and use tools; to understand cause and effect; to recognize patterns of significance; to understand and express the unique context of experience or activity; and respond to the world in a meaningful way.
Memory is the ability to retain, retain, and then remember, knowledge, information or experience. Although memory is traditionally a fixed theme in philosophy, the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries also saw the lesson about memory emerging as the subject of investigation in the paradigm of cognitive psychology. In recent decades, it has become one of the pillars of a new branch of science called cognitive neuroscience, a mating between cognitive psychology and neuroscience.
Imagination is the activity of generating or evoking new situations, images, ideas or quasars in mind. This is a activity characteristically subjective , rather than a direct or passive experience. This term is technically used in psychology for the process of reviving in the mind perception of objects previously given in sense perception. Because the use of the term is contrary to ordinary language, some psychologists prefer to describe this process as "imagery" or "image" or to call it "reproductive" imagination as opposed to "productive" or "constructive". The things imagined are said to be seen in the "inner eye". Among the many practical functions of imagination is the ability to project future possibilities (or history), to "see" things from the perspective of others, and to change the way things are felt, including to make decisions to respond to, or enact, what unimaginable.
Awareness of mammals (these include humans) is an aspect of the mind that is generally thought to consist of qualities such as subjectivity, feelings, and the ability to sense the connection between oneself and one's environment. This is the subject of much research in the philosophy of mind, psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science. Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is the subjective experience itself, and access awareness, which refers to the availability of global information to process systems in the brain. Phenomenal awareness has many different quality experiences, often referred to as qualia. Phenomenal consciousness is usually a consciousness of something or something about something, a property known as intentionality in the philosophy of the mind.
Mental content
Mental content is goods that are considered as "in" the mind, and are able to be shaped and manipulated by mental processes and abilities. Examples include thoughts, concepts, memories, emotions, perceptions, and intentions. Philosophical theories of mental content include internalism, externalism, representationalism and intentionality.
Memetics
Memetics is a theory of mental content based on analogy with Darwinian evolution, which originated from Richard Dawkins and Douglas Hofstadter in the 1980s. This is an evolutionary model of cultural information transfer. A meme, analogous to a gene, is an idea, a belief, a pattern of behavior (etc.) "Hosted" in one or more individual minds, and can reproduce itself from thought to mind. Thus what would be regarded as an individual affecting others to adopt a belief, is seen as a meme as a self-reproducing meme.
Relationships to the brain
In animals, the brain, or encephalon (the Greek for "in the head"), is the central control of the central nervous system, responsible for thinking. In most animals, the brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary sensory vision, hearing, equilibrioception, taste and smell. While all vertebrates have brains, most invertebrates have a centralized brain or a collection of individual ganglia. Primitive animals such as sponges have no brain at all. The brain can be very complex. For example, the human brain contains about 86 billion neurons, each associated with as many as 10,000 others.
Understanding the relationship between brain and mind - the mind-body problem is one of the central issues in the history of philosophy - is a challenging issue both philosophically and scientifically. There are three major philosophical ideas about the answer: dualism, materialism, and idealism. Dualism holds that mind exists independently of the brain; materialism holds that mental phenomena are identical with neuronal phenomena; and idealism states that only a mental phenomenon exists.
Through much of history, many philosophers find it inconceivable that cognition can be carried out by physical substances such as brain tissue (ie neurons and synapses). Descartes, who thinks extensively about mind-brain relations, finds the possibility to explain reflexes and other simple behaviors in mechanistic terms, although he does not believe that complex thinking, and language in particular, can be explained by reference to the physical brain alone.
The most straightforward scientific evidence of a strong connection between the material of the physical brain and the mind is the impact of physical changes on the brain to the mind, such as with traumatic brain injury and psychoactive drug use. Philosopher Patricia Churchland notes that this mind-drug interaction shows the intimate relationship between the brain and the mind.
In addition to philosophical questions, the relationship between the mind and the brain involves a number of scientific questions, including understanding the relationship between mental activity and brain activity, the exact mechanism by which medicine affects cognition, and the correlation of nerve awareness.
Theoretical approach to explain how the mind arises from the brain including koneksionisme, komputasionalisme, and Bayesian brain.
Evolution of the history of the human mind
The evolution of human intelligence refers to several theories that aim to illustrate how human intelligence has evolved in relation to the evolution of the human brain and the origin of language.
The time line of human evolution stretches for about 7 million years, from the separation of the genus Pan to the emergence of a behavioral modernity some 50,000 years ago. From this timeline, the first 3 million years of attention Sahelanthropus , 2 million of the following attention Australopithecus , while the last 2 million cover the actual history of the species Homo (Paleolithic ).
Many of the characteristics of human intelligence, such as empathy, the theory of mind, mourning, ritual, and the use of symbols and tools, are obvious in great apes in spite of lower sophistication than humans.
There is a debate between the supporters of the idea of ​​sudden emergence of intelligence, or "Great leap forward" and which is a gradual hypothesis or continuum.
The theory of evolution of intelligence includes:
- the social brain hypothesis of Robin Dunbar
- Geoffrey Miller's sexual selection hypothesis on sexual selection in human evolution
- The social competition-ecological competition (EDSC) is described by Mark V. Flinn, David C. Geary, and Carol V. Ward based primarily on the work of Richard D. Alexander.
- The idea of ​​intelligence as a signal of good health and resistance to disease.
- Group selection theory suggests that organism characteristics that benefit groups (tribes, ethnicities, or larger populations) can evolve despite the individual disadvantages mentioned above.
- The notion that intelligence is linked to nutrition, and thus status. Higher IQs could be a signal that a person is coming from and living in a physical and social environment where high levels of nutrition, and vice versa.
Philosophy of mind
The philosophy of the mind is a branch of philosophy that studies the nature of mind, mental event, mental function, mental nature, consciousness and their relationship with the physical body. The mind-body problem, the mind-to-body connection, is usually seen as a central problem in the philosophy of the mind, although there are other problems about the nature of the mind that does not involve its relationship to the physical body. JosÃÆ'Â © Manuel Rodriguez Delgado writes, "In today's popular usage, the soul and mind are not clearly distinguished and some, more or less conscious, still feel that the soul, and perhaps the mind, can enter or leave the body as an independent entity."
Dualism and monism are the two main schools of thought that seek to solve mind-body problems. Dualism is a position that the mind and body in some way separate from each other. This can be traced back to Plato, Aristotle, and Nyaya, Samkhya and the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, but it was most accurately formulated by Renà © Descartes in the 17th century. Dualist substances argue that the mind is an independently existing substance, while the Dualist Property maintains that the mind is a group of independent properties that arise from and can not be reduced to the brain, but that is not substance different.
The 20th-century philosopher Martin Heidegger claims that subjective experiences and activities (ie "minds") can not be understood in terms of Cartesian "substance" which has "properties" at all (whether the mind itself is perceived as distinct, no). This is because the subjective nature, qualitative coherent experience in matters - or semantics, can not be compared with the concept of a substance containing properties. This is a fundamental ontological argument.
The philosophers of cognitive science Daniel Dennett, for example, argue that there is no such thing as a narrative center called "mind", but instead there is only a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different types of "software" running in parallel. Psychologist B.F. Skinner argues that the mind is an explanatory fiction that diverts attention from causes of environmental behavior; he considered the mind a "black box" and thought that mental processes might be better understood as a form of verbal behavior in disguise.
Philosopher David Chalmers argues that third-person approaches to exposing mind and conscience are ineffective, such as looking into other people's brains or observing human behavior, but that a first-person approach is needed. The first person perspective shows that the mind must be conceptualized as something different from the brain.
The mind has also been described as a manifestation from moment to moment, a moment of thought at a time as a rapidly flowing stream, in which the impression of reason and mental phenomena is constantly changing.
The mind/body perspective
Monism is the position that the mind and body are not entities that are physiologically and ontologically different. This view was first suggested in Western Philosophy by Parmenides in the 5th century BC and later supported by a 17th-century rationalist, Baruch Spinoza. According to Spinoza's dual-aspect theory, mind and body are two aspects of the underlying reality which he describes as diverse as "Nature" or "God".
- Physicists argue that only entities are postulated by existing physical theory, and that the mind will ultimately be described within the framework of this entity when the physical theory continues to evolve.
- Idealist maintains that the mind is all there is and that the outside world is either the mental itself, or the illusion created by the mind.
- monist Neutral obeys positions that are considered things in the world can be regarded as physical or mental depending on whether a person is interested in their relationship with other things in the world or their relationship with vision. For example, the red dot on the wall is physical in its dependence on walls and pigments made, but it is mental to the extent that it is considered reddish depending on how the visual system works. Unlike dual-aspect theory, neutral monism does not place a more fundamental substance in which the mind and body are aspects.
The most common monisms of the 20th and 21st centuries are all variations of physicalism; These positions include behaviorism, identity type theory, anomalous monism and functionalism.
Many modern philosophers think of adopting a reductive or non-reductive physical position , maintaining in their different ways that the mind is not something separate from the body. This approach is very influential in science, for example in the field of sociobiology, computer science, evolutionary psychology, and various neuroscience. However, other philosophers have adopted a nonphysical position that challenges the idea that the mind is pure physical construction.
- Reductive physicists assert that all mental states and properties will ultimately be explained by the scientific accounts of processes and physiological states.
- non-reductive physicists are of the opinion that although the brain is all there is is to the mind, the predicate and vocabulary used in mental description and descriptions are indispensable, and can not be reduced to language and a low-level explanation of physical science.
Further advances in neuroscience have helped to clarify many of these issues, and their findings have been taken by many to support the claims of physicists. Nevertheless, our knowledge is incomplete, and modern philosophers of the mind continue to discuss how subjective qualia and deliberate mental states can be explained naturally.
Scientific studies
Neuroscience
Neuroscience studies the nervous system, the physical basis of the mind. At the system level, neuroscientists investigate how biological neural networks are formed and interact physiologically to produce mental and content functions such as reflexes, multisensor integration, motor coordination, circadian rhythms, emotional responses, learning, and memory. On a larger scale, efforts in computational neuroscience have developed large-scale models that simulate simple, functioning brain. In 2012, such models include thalamus, basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex, motor cortex, and occipital cortex, and the deliberate brain can learn, respond to visual stimuli, coordinate motor responses, form short-term memories, and learn to respond to patterns. Currently, researchers aim to program the hippocampus and limbic systems, hypothetically instilling a simulated mind with long-term memory and rough emotions.
Instead, affective neuroscience studies the nervous mechanisms of personality, emotions, and moods primarily through experimental tasks.
Cognitive Science
Cognitive science tests mental functions that produce information processing, called cognition. This includes perception, attention, working memory, long-term memory, production and understanding of language, learning, reasoning, problem solving, and decision-making. Cognitive science seeks to understand the thought "in terms of representational structures in mind and computational procedures operating on those structures".
Psychology
Psychology is a scientific study of human behavior, mental function, and experience. Both as an academic and applied discipline, Psychology involves the scientific study of mental processes such as perception, cognition, emotion, personality, and environmental influences, such as social and cultural influences, and interpersonal relationships, to construct human theories. behavior. Psychological patterns can be understood as a way of processing information at low cost. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various areas of human activity, including issues of individual daily life and treatment of mental health problems.
Psychology differs from other social sciences (eg anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology) because of its focus on experiments on the scale of individuals, or individuals in small groups as opposed to large groups, institutions or societies. Historically, psychology differs from biology and neuroscience because it is primarily concerned with the mind rather than the brain. The science of modern psychology combines physiological and neurological processes into conceptions of perception, cognition, behavior, and mental disorders.
Mental health
By analogy with the health of the body, one can speak metaphorically about a state of healthy thought, or mental health. Merriam-Webster defines mental health as "a state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his cognitive and emotional abilities, function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life." According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there is no "official" mental health definition. Cultural differences, subjective judgments, and competing professional theories all affect how "mental health" is defined. In general, most experts agree that "mental health" and "mental disorders" are not counterintuitive. In other words, the absence of a recognized mental disorder is not necessarily an indicator of mental health.
One way to think about mental health is to see how effectively and successfully one works. Feel capable and competent; able to handle normal stress levels, maintain a satisfying relationship, and lead an independent life; and being able to "rise again," or recover from difficult situations, are all signs of mental health.
Psychotherapy is an interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to assist clients in life issues. This usually involves enhancing the sense of well-being of the individual and reducing the subjective unpleasant experience. Psychotherapists use a variety of techniques based on the establishment of experience relationships, dialogue, communication and behavioral changes and are designed to improve the mental health of clients or patients, or to enhance group relationships (as in the family). Most forms of psychotherapy use only oral conversation, although some also use other forms of communication such as written words, art, drama, narrative, or therapeutic touch. Psychotherapy occurs in a structured meeting between a trained therapist and a client. Theoretical, theoretical psychotherapy began in the 19th century with psychoanalysis; since then, a number of other approaches have been developed and continue to be made.
Non-human thoughts
Animal intelligence
Animal cognition, or cognitive ethology, is the title given to the modern approach to the mental capacity of animals. It has evolved from comparative psychology, but is also strongly influenced by ethical approaches, behavioral ecology, and evolutionary psychology. Much of what was once considered under the heading "animal intelligence" is now considered under this title. The mastery of animal language, trying to understand or understand the extent to which animal cognition can be expressed by language-related research, has been a controversy among cognitive linguists.
Artificial Intelligence
In 1950 Alan M. Turing published "Machine Computing and Intelligence" in Mind, in which he proposed that machines be tested for intelligence using questions and answers. This process is now called the Turing Test. The term Artificial Intelligence (AI) was first used by John McCarthy who considered it to mean "the science and technique of making intelligent machines". It can also refer to the intelligence shown by artificial entities ( unnatural manufactured, produced ). AI is studied in the areas of overlapping computer science, psychology, neuroscience and engineering, dealing with intelligent behavior, learning and adaptation and is usually developed using a customized machine or computer.
Research at AI is concerned with producing machines to automate tasks that require intelligent behavior. Examples include control, planning and scheduling, the ability to answer diagnostic and consumer questions, handwriting, natural language, speech and face recognition. Thus, the study of AI has also become an engineering discipline, which is focused on providing solutions for real-life problems, knowledge mining, software applications, strategy games such as computer chess and other video games. One of the biggest limitations of AI is in the real domain of machine understanding. Consequently the understanding of natural language and koneksionisme (where the behavior of neural networks is investigated) is an active field of research and development.
The debate about the nature of the mind is relevant to the development of artificial intelligence. If the mind is indeed something that is separate from or higher than the functioning of the brain, then it is hypothetically much more difficult to re-create it in the machine, if possible at all. If, on the other hand, the mind is nothing more than the functions collected from the brain, it will be possible to make machines with recognizable minds (though perhaps only with computers that are much different from today), with the simple virtue of the brain. The fact that such a machine already exists in the form of the human brain.
In religion
Many religions attribute spiritual qualities to the human mind. These are often closely related to their mythology and their ideas about life after death.
The Indian philosopher Sri Aurobindo seeks to unite the Eastern and Western psychological traditions with their integral psychology, as do many new philosophers and religious movements. Judaism teaches that "moach shalit al halev", the mind overwhelms the heart. Humans can approach the Divine intellectually, through studying and behaving in accordance with the Divine Will as bound in the Torah, and using deep logical insight to lure and guide emotional passion during prayer. Christianity tends to see the mind as distinct from the soul (Greek nous ) and sometimes further distinguished from the spirit. The esoteric tradition of the West sometimes refers to the mental body that exists in the plane other than the physical. The various schools of Hinduism philosophy have debated whether the human soul (Sanskrit atman ) is different from, or identical to, Brahman , the divine reality. Taoism sees humans as being adjacent to the forces of nature, and the mind is not separated from the body. Confucianism sees the mind, like the body, as being inherently perfect.
Buddhism
Buddhism explains the moment-to-moment manifestation of the thought-flow. The components that make up the mind are known as the five aggregates of life (ie, material forms, feelings, perceptions, wills, and sensual consciousness), emerging and passing continuously. The appearance and decline of these aggregates are now described as influenced by five causal laws: biological laws, psychological laws, physical laws, the laws of the will, and universal laws. The Buddhist practice of attention involves observing this ever-changing stream of thought.
According to the Dharmakirti Buddhist philosopher, the mind has two fundamental qualities: "clarity and cognition". If something is not the two qualities, it can not be legitimately called the mind. "Clarity" refers to the fact that the mind has no color, shape, size, location, weight, or other physical characteristics, and "conscious" that it serves to know or perceive objects. "Knowing" refers to the fact that the mind is conscious of the content of experience, and that, in order to exist, the mind must know the object. You can not have a mind - whose function is to be fully aware of the object - which exists without knowing the object.
The mind, in Buddhism, is also described as "space-like" and "illusion-like". The mind is space-like in the sense that it is not physically obstructive. It has no qualities that will prevent it from being there. In Mahayana Buddhism, the mind is an illusion-as in the sense that it is empty of an inherent existence. This does not mean it does not exist, it means that it exists in a way contrary to the ordinary way we misunderstand how phenomena exist, according to Buddhism. When the mind itself is properly realized, without misinterpreting its existence, it looks like an illusion. But there is a big difference between being "space and illusion" and being "space-like" and "illusion-like". The mind does not consist of space, it just shares some descriptive similarities with space. The mind is not an illusion, it only shares some descriptive qualities with illusion.
Buddhism holds that there is no inherent and unchanging identity (Inherent I, Inherent Me) or phenomena (true Self, inherent self, Atman, Soul, Self, Jiva, Ishvara, essence of humanity, etc.) Which is the experience experience and agents of our actions. In other words, man consists only of body and mind, and nothing extra. In the body there is no part or series of parts which - by itself or themselves - the person. Similarly, in the mind there is no part or series of parts that are "private". Man only consists of five aggregates, or skandha and nothing else.
In the same way, "mind" is what can be legitimately labeled conceptually in our experience that is merely clarity and knowledge. There is something separate and separate from clarity and knowing which is "Consciousness", in Buddhism. "Mind" is part of the experience of the sixth sense door, which can legitimately be referred to as the mind by the term "concept-concept". Nor is there "thing out there, mind here, and experience somewhere in between". There is a third thing called "consciousness" that exists in the awareness of what the contents of thought and thought are conscious. There are five senses (arising from mere experience: form, color, odor component, taste component, sound component, touch component) and mind as the sixth institution; this means, strictly speaking, that there is a third thing called "consciousness" and the third thing called "experiencing the conscious experience." This awareness is closely related to "non-self" because it does not value experience with craving or aversion.
Clearly, the experience comes and is known by the mind, but there is a third thing that mentions Sati what "real experiences from experience" sit apart from experience and who can realize the experience in 4 levels. (Maha Sathipatthana Sutta.)
- Contents
- Sensation (Changes in body mind.)
- Thoughts,
- Content of thoughts. (Changes in body mind.)
To realize these four levels one needs to cultivate a balance toward craving and aversion. It's called Vipassana which is different from the way it reacts to Desire and Reluctance. It is a conscious and balanced state with a complete experience here and now. This is the way of Buddhism, relating to the mind and the nature of mind (and people).
Mortality mind
Because of mind-body problems, much interest and debate surround the question of what happens to one's conscious mind when one's body dies. During brain death, all brain functions permanently stop, according to the current view of neuroscience which sees these processes as the physical basis of mental phenomena, the mind fails to survive brain death and ceases to exist. This loss of permanent awareness after death is often called "eternal". The belief that some spiritual or incorporeal component (soul) exists and that it is maintained after death is described with the term "hereafter".
In pseudoscience
Parapsychology
Parapsychology is a scientific study of some types of paranormal phenomena, or seemingly paranormal phenomena, such as precognition, telekinesis and telepathy.
The term is based on the Greek para (on the outside), the soul (soul/mind), and the logo (account/explanation) and was created by the psychologist Max Dessoir in or before 1889. JB Rhine later popularized "parapsychology" as a substitute for "short-term psychic research", during a shift in methodology that brought experimental methods to study psychic phenomena. Controversial parapsychology, with many scientists believing that psychic ability has not been proven to exist. The status of parapsychology as a science has also been debated, with many scientists concerned with discipline as pseudosain.
See also
- An outline of human intelligence - the topic tree that presents the nature, capacity, model, and field of human intelligence research, and more.
- Outline of thought - a tree of topics that identifies many types of thinking, types of thinking, aspects of thought, related fields, and more.
References
External links
- Area, C. D. (1925). Thoughts and place in nature . New York: Harcourt, Brace & amp; Company, Inc . Retrieved July 7 2016 .
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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